Bongo.. Always American Made - Analysis Of Bongo Jeans Ad :: essays research papers

BONGO.. Always American Made - Analysis of Bongo Jeans Ad     This ad for Bongo jeans is from the April issue of Seventeen magazine.The ad gives no written description of the product. Only symbols and hiddenmessages atomic number 18 used to draw in the reader and splash up interest in the product.     There is an attractive young couple engaged in what appears to be astrip-poker game. The man is obviously losing. He is plain nude behind acard tabulate, wearing only his shoes, with his jeans draped over him. His briefsare on the floor under the table, reinforcing the fact that he is nude. He has alook of disbelief on his face, but at the same time, he looks happy and content.It is almost as if he is thinking, "Oh no, now I am nude. What will I do now?".The young lady has obviously not lost a single hand. She is fullyclothed and seems to be in total control of the game and her life. This makessense since the magazine the ad appears in is geared towards teenage girls. Shesits in a somewhat sensual pose, listing forward, with a look of confidence andachievement on her face. She obviously knows that her hand is a winner, and thather companion will soon be without even his shoes.On the table are two glasses of milk. This is one of the most powerfulimages in the ad. I believe they are there to counteract the sexual overtonesand idea of risk-taking in the ad. Milk is included as if to say, "Even thoughthese two young people are probably going to have sex when the game is finished,they are wholesome, good people." Milk works much better than using soft drinks,for example. If the makers of the ad had used cola for instance, the readercould not have really cognise if the liquid in the glasses was cola, dark beer, orliquor. By using milk, the people who produced the ad made certain that thereader could make no fault about what the glasses contain.Surrounding the border of the ad are playing cards. I believe the yrepresent the idea of gambling and a "Devil whitethorn care" attitude. The cards conveyto the reader that its all right to gamble and take chances. They seem to say,"If you wear our jeans, you can take chances and still be in control." Teen agegirls are looking for this type of message, so this ad is very effective inrelaying this thought.

The Long Walk :: essays research papers

Walking, there is no end in sight stranded on a delimitate country road for all eternity. It is almost dark now. The clouds having moved in secretively. When did that happen? I am so far away from all that is familiar. The trees ar groaning against the winds fury when did the wind start blowing? Have I been walking for so long that time hysterically slipped away The leaves are whisper about swirling through the air like discarded post-it notes smashing, slapping against the trees and blacktop, splat-snap. Where did the sun go? It gave the impression only an instant ago, or had it been longer that it was going to be a still and peaceful sunny day has panic from hunger and walking so long finally crept in? Waking up this morning, had I been warned of the imminent day, the highs and lows that I would soon face, and the unexpected twist of fate that awaited me, I would have stayed in bed.It was a sunny day. The leftovers of last weeks rash still blanketed most of the surrounding area . I decided, after straggling about the house for nearly two hours, lethargy slowly creeping in, that I would go for a drive. I leaped in my trusty old Maverick and roared away. The Maverick, which I bought in 1975, was dark blue, (my favorite color). It was a steal and only ten years chivalric its prime. It was a good, trustworthy car and until today, I had not had any problems with it. This was a spontaneous kind of getaway, so nothing was planned, no basket of food prepared, nor did I make any other preparations. Living in the city can be depressing so getting away from the concrete jungle for a few hours was a welcomed escape. I have not lived in this city for very long, although I knew the names of the adjoining towns, there were a few that I did not know. However, being the adventurer that I am, I drove off in a direction that I have never been. I do not know why I did not think to look at the gas gauge before I left perhaps I was too preoccupied with the thought of fleeing t hat I did not care. After two and a half hours of Driving, on an old narrow country road, maneuvering the Maverick to its wide-eyed potential I began to sense the problem with my car even before it actually happened.

Psychological Analysis of Little Red Riding Hood Essay -- Little Red R

Psychological Analysis of Little Red equitation Hood   In the story of Little Red Riding Hood, you hear about the grandmother, the granddaughter, and the wolf. But the lecturer does not hear much about the mother. In Olga Broumas poem Little Red Riding Hood, the reader can hear about the mothers impact on Little Reds life, or the lack of one. At the first glance, Little Red Riding Hood appears as a lament of a daughter who misses a dead mother or who is trying to explain to her mother about her lot in life. However, when viewed in the light of the Psychological approach, the reader is able to see the writers life in full detail her sexual orientation, her hate/fear of men, and her inability to have children. The her of grad being the writer. The first part, we now deal with the sexuality of the narrator. In the poem, there was a verse that said this I kept the hood secret, kept it cover more secret still. I opened it only at night, and with other women who might be walki ng the same road to their own grandmas house...their HOODS secure in the SAME PART(Stor...

Water Pollution in America Essay examples -- Environmental Pollution Es

When you think of problems in the world today, water befoulment isnt one and only(a) that would normally come up. In fact it is one of the worst problems in the world today. Water pollution, by definition, is the contamination of streams, lakes, underground water, bays, or oceans by whatsoever substances harmful to living things. All living things contain water and most need water to survive, so water pollution is a big problem. If severe, the pollution can kill off birds, fish, and any animals that use the water source. In some cases even killing an entire species. Keeping the pollution to a stripped-down isnt the easiest thing in the world to do. The major water pollutants are chemical, biological, or physical materials that degrade water quality. Pollutants can be classed in to octad categories, each of which presents its own set of hazards.Petroleum products are one of the most toxic substances to the ecosystem. Oil and chemicals derived from oil get into the water mainly by kernel of accidental spills from ships, tanker trucks, pipelines, and leaky underground storage tanks. Many petroleum products are poisonous if ingested by animals, and spilled oil damages the feathers of birds or the fur of animals, oftentimes causing death.Pesticides and herbicides are toxins that are used to kill of unwanted animals and plants. These may be collected by rainwater runoff and carried into steams, rivers, lakes, and e...

Cloning :: essays research papers fc

This article, Cloning Noahs Ark, is about the cloning of finisangered species to preventsome animals from disappearing from the planet. The three authors of this article were Robert P. Lanza, Betsy L. Dresser and PhilipDamiani. According to Scientific American, they all share an interest in reproductivebiology and animals. Lanza, the vice prexy of medical and scientific development atAdvanced Cell Technology (ACT) in Worcester, Massachusetts, founded the SouthMeadow Pond and Wildlife Association in Worcester County. Dresser is senior vicepresident for research at the Audubon Institute and director of the Audubon InstituteCenter for Research of Endangered Species and the Freeport-McMoRan Audubon SpeciesSurvival Center. Damiani, a research scientist at ACT, is also a penis of theInternational Embryo Transfer Societys committee on cryopreservation.II. Explain the major concepts and points made.Research done, results, his/her conclusionsIII. Your SummationFrom this article, I learned a design of different things. I learned how the actualcloning process occurs. I also became aware of many different Endangered Species andother animals that have already become extinct. I also learned that a clone could havebeen born from an animal other than their own species. For example, a regular house guy cablegave birth to a cloned tiger. I learned that cloning is very difficult and a long process.....I feel that the cloning of Endangered Species could be a excellent idea. Humanbeings have carelessly killed off many innocent living creatures on this planet by huntingthem and by creating pollution that end their lives. If the we could prevent the extinctionof healthy, harmless animals, we should do it. Cloning is a way to prevent the extinction

Cloning :: essays research papers fc

This phrase, Cloning Noahs Ark, is about the cloning of endangered species to preventsome animals from disappearing from the planet. The three authors of this article were Robert P. Lanza, Betsy L. Dresser and PhilipDamiani. According to Scientific American, they all share an interest in reproductivebiology and animals. Lanza, the vice president of medical and scientific development atAdvanced Cell Technology (ACT) in Worcester, Massachusetts, founded the SouthMeadow Pond and Wildlife Association in Worcester County. Dresser is senior vicepresident for research at the Audubon Institute and director of the Audubon InstituteCenter for Research of Endangered Species and the Freeport-McMoRan Audubon SpeciesSurvival Center. Damiani, a research scientist at ACT, is also a member of theInternational embryo Transfer Societys committee on cryopreservation.II. Explain the major concepts and points made.Research done, results, his/her conclusionsIII. Your SummationFrom this article, I learne d a number of different things. I learned how the actualcloning process occurs. I also became aware of many different Endangered Species andother animals that have already become extinct. I also learned that a clone could havebeen born from an animal other than their own species. For example, a regular house catgave birth to a cloned tiger. I learned that cloning is very difficult and a long process.....I feel that the cloning of Endangered Species could be a excellent idea. valetbeings have carelessly killed off many innocent living creatures on this planet by huntingthem and by creating pollution that end their lives. If the we could prevent the experimental extinctionof healthy, harmless animals, we should do it. Cloning is a way to prevent the extinction

Are Zoos Internment Camps for Animals Essay

Majority of people are familiar with the popular animation movie, Madagascar. The plot includes four spoiled zoo carnals that escape to the crackers and quickly find pop out that its not what they expected. Now this movie has quite the comedic take on a often bigger issue whether the zoo is an internment camp for sentient beings that should be shut down or not. Zoos are seen as a tourist attraction sequence the animals are used for the entertainment. Honestly ponder this question who didnt want to go to the zoo as a child and see Bobo the famous legal tender do silly yet entertaining tricks? The concept of the zoo takes onward animals natural instincts to spicy in the wild however, it is understandable if an animal or a certain species thats close to extinction is taken in by zoo care. Therefore, zoos are an internment camp for those animals that are loose of taking care of their selves in the wild and arent for those that are in need of care and close to extinction. Regard less of how much effort is enthrone into recreating an animals specific habitat, it will never be the same. Orcas for example, would have to swim the circumference of SeaWorlds main pool 1,900 times in ONE sidereal day to replicate the 100 miles they swim everyday in the vast oceans (8 Reasons Orcas Dont Belong at SeaWorld). Due to much(prenominal) a subtile habitat, orcas are forced to live and perform next to other whales either equal if not bigger than them. This results in anxiety and tension between the orcas which causes them to fight. A factor such as fighting can lead to early, unexpected deaths in parks and zoos. Animals die prematurely in zoos. African elephants in the wild live more than three times as long as those kept in zoos. Even Asian elephants working in timber camps live longer than those born in zoos (10 Facts about Zoos). Animals were created to live in the wild so, naturally when born into a zoo their natural instincts arent developed. If in that location is ever a case when an animal would have to be released back to the wild from a zoo, the animal wouldnt necessarily be as wide-awake as it would have been actually growing up in the wild.The most importantaspect of zoo captivity is the process of being taken away from families and from freedom. The animals cannot run, roam, climb, hunt, forage, choose a partner, or be with others of their species (Entertainment Issues Captive Creatures). Humans tend to forget that we have relation to animals due to our evolution and complexity curiously when it comes to feelings however, there is no bond stronger than that of a family bond. Captivity can bring a sense of loneliness, yet that void could be filled with the animals familythat in some cases wont be there. It is understood that a zoo keeps animals safe. This is true to an extent. Over a six month period, six animals died at the National Zoo due to the misuse of harsh chemicals to kill off rats (Entertainment Issues Captive Creatures). In the wild, this domestic issue would not have been a problem. A zoo can only keep animals safe for so long without hurting them, which is by shielding them from the animal that they really are in this world. This shield will eventually cause animals to lose their nature all together. Its possible to give zoos the benefit of the doubt when it comes to taking care of menace species. Still not letting zoos off the hook yet, extensive research has to be put into the species before taking the animals in. Even after that research has been put in whos to say that that particular zoo is capable of handling such a creature. There are still many hidden possibilities such as micromanaging the endangered animals in their habit, habitat restoration, or assisted reproduction just to name a few. An animals life should only be confined if its circumstances are so unmanageable that zoos need to take a small step in and take care of the struggling animal(s). check being that animal in the zoo tha ts told what to do every day of their lives, held in the same place, forced to be with an incompatible mate, and trained to do tricks made for domestic animals. Think of being taken from the infinite blue oceans and moved to artificial pool sized tank. It isnt the pampered life that zoos make it out to be. It is up to humans, who are aware of conditions of zoos behind the scenes, to ensure that the animals that are in captivity or are an endangered species receive the utmost efficient quality, care, and benevolence possible.

Treaty of Versailles

One of the most important documents ever, The Treaty of Versailles was proposed to be a peace settlement between the victorious associate and the disappointed Germans at the outcome of World War I. The document was a major disaster and did not serve any of the purposes it was drawn for. The harsh provisions of the agreement along with its unfair orders to Germany led to the worlds most horrific leader come to power and to a fault set the platform for another war. The treaty became a ecumenical example of history how greed and in safeice can lead to disasters no one thought possible.World War I came to an end on November 11, 1918. Germany had surrendered and signed the cease-fire agreement. The Allies were engaged in tailoring a peace settlement with a defeated Germany. In December of 1918, the Allied leading met in The Allies hoped that writing a peace agreement would be a quick and easy process however, once the process of writing the treaty started, the Allies engraft that t hey had much greater task ahead. President Woodrow Wilson had his Fourteen Points and knew revenge was a bad idea, and he was right.However, France and Great Britain wanted Germany to pay for all the damages she caused and wanted to cripple her completely of her strengths. Germany was in financial ruins and had to cope with harsh changes at the same time. There were vast land grabs by France and Britain as they took everyplace mixed colonies of Germany. Some territorial losses were Alsace-Lorraine being re dour to France, the Polish Corridor being taken by Prussia and Russia, the Saar Basin under League of Nations control for 15 years and turned the coal mines over to France, Danzig became a free city under the League.All of her colonies were distributed as mandates among the Allies. New countries were being formed and old countries were being destroyed, all to the arrangements and ease to the Allies. Germans leaders were especially angered because the land grabs and borders creat ed by Britain and France separated many Germans from their homeland and compel to live under new countries being formed. Anschluss was also forbidden. One of the restrictions that in truth hit home to the Germans was the extreme limitation of Germanys pride, its army.The German army was restricted to 100,000 men who had to serve for 12 years. Her navy and air force were also severely restricted in size, and the production of weapons, tanks, submarines and planes were forbidden and so was the German Naval fleet entirely surrendered to Great Britain. If such tough measures werent humbling enough the Germans had to deal with another insult. Article 231 The War-Guilt Clause, Germany was compelled to accept responsibility for all the loss and damage caused by the war and to pay reparations for damages done to civilians which was state to be 6. Billion Pounds paid in gold. All these factors really put Germans back home a difficult change to cope with. The terms of treaty of Versailles such as reparations, war guilt, disarmament, and loss of German territory do the Germans anger rise and their hatred towards against the assort. No peace can be made if all the leaders around the world make their decision in haste and greed. Instead on focusing on the wellbeing of all countries in the future with a much more comforting and modern manner, all the country leaders were simply there to gain more territories for themselves.The treaty was say to prevent another disastorous war from repeating itself, and ironically it was a platform for the next World War. A generous peace would have eased acrimony in Germany, but was probably impossible, given public opinion of the citizens of France and England. The League of Nations was too weak to survive and handle all the countries bulldozing Germany with different factors from left, right, centre and above. First, the forced signature required of Germany, placing full blame for the war on her shoulders made her the scapegoat of E urope which in reality was every countries fault.Second, the border drawing by the great powers France and Britain creating new nations such as Czechoslovakia. Third, the newly arranged borders that left large German minorities under the rule of other ethnic groups. Fourth, the attempted chalk up destruction of German military power which meant that opportunistic and expansionist countries would be able to take advantage of their weak neighbor. All these factors led to Hitler taking over Germany, preparing her for another war which would bring her back to her feet.In hindsight, World War II was almost inevitable given the terms of the Versailles treaty. Some would argue that it wasnt the direct cause, dapple others would say it was one of the most important factors. The restrictions imposed by the Versailles treaty created a social and economic depression in Germany, with widespread bitterness among its people. The allies placed a huge burden on Germany to pay for the cost of Wor ld War I that had just occured. This act alone essentially spelled excoriate for the Wiemar Republic and a peaceful Germany.The people of Germany felt the Treaty was an insult to their honour, and that they were not the only guilty player in the war. Also, by their leaders subscribe the Treaty and agreeing, they felt betrayed. They were desperate for hope. Germany needed a saviour to save herself from slipping further down the dark road she was headed for and got Hitler. He swept in and used his charisma to win an entire country and channel their thoughts and he did that by the opportunity the landed in his lap.If the treaty hadnt been so unfeeling on Germany, they wouldnt have needed a hero to save their country from slipping in situation no one would have imagined. Hitler rebeliously cut the treatys orders on every restriction Germany had. The remilitarization put the Germans back to work and oiled her economic wheels so she could start moving ahead and soon rifle the stronges t military power in the world. Suddenly there were jobs and apparent prosperity, and the German people could see a brighter future.This all helped sell the belief that the Nazis and their policies were righteous and that Hilter was a great leader. Adolf Hitler was one of those people. He gave the German people a reason for the problems Germany was facing in Jewish people, gypsies, and homosexuals (among many others). He created a whole nother solid ground of brutality with the jewish people, known as the Holocaust. Hitler seemed to present all the answers, and was eventually made High Chancellor and the first Fuhrer, creating totalitarianism in Germany.The Treaty of Versailles was a culmination of hostility and revenge and provided the perfect environment for Hitler to rise to power, and set the stage for a second World War. Germanys punishment caused a tick off of events that led only up to disaster. The unfair and selfish land grabs and distrobution by Britain and France, the un imaginable amount of money to be paid by Germany and the refraining military orders just set a very bitter feel in the German air. This caused for the rise of Adolf Hitler who just brought more disaster and loss of innocent lives.Hitler also effectuate his promises by creating a new World War which could have been entirely avoided if the Treaty of Versailles would have stuck to making peace, not deals. Evidence suggests that there was no integrity major cause for World War I but in effect there was several major events associated with its commencement. It is clear that the articles of the Treaty of Versailles, claiming sole German responsibility for causing World War I was unjust, it was a shared responsibility for the cause of the next World War.

Analysis of Mozart’s K. 515 Mvt. 1

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart quintette No. 3 in C major(ip), K. 515 Andrew McGuire Dr. Burkart MUSHIS 200 11/19/2012 Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was a prodigy of his time, and arguable the greatest of completely time. This paper result discuss an analysis of his third string quintet in C major, K. 515. Through this chip in Sonata Form we will break the exposition, the development, the recapitulation, and the coda along with an analysis of the quintet we will briefly discuss parts of Mozarts life, as well as look at the backdrop of the Viola Quintet No. 3 in C Major, K. 515.Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was innate(p) into a melodic family after his sister Nannerl, by his father and mother Leopold and Anna female horse. His beginnings would prepare in Salzburg, Austria (Eisen). As much is known ab come out the education of little Wolfie we cod that his father Leopold is responsible (Jeffery). We also discover that it was not just his musical education that concerned his father but other are as as well, such as arithmetic, reading, writing, and literature (Eisen). Much is not know about the mother of Mozart. She was born into a middle class non-musical family.His father, on the other hand was an accomplished musician and teacher born into life as a choirboy. The nearest compositions to Wolfies K. 515 are a second string quintet K. 516 and one of his better known Operas Don Giovanni. Taking a short break from Don Giovanni Mozart would preparedness off to write a pair off string quintets. K. 515 and K. 516. Written the age of 31, the better-known two of the pieces is the g minor quintet (K. 516), and the C major quintet (K. 515) is regarded as the finer of the two. Almost a month would separate the composing of the sister quintets both written for double viola.During the time of the second four-spot would be the passing of his father, and some say that there may be a relation between the key of the g minor and the passing (Christiansen). This duple viola is different f or the time, even given that Mozart preferred viola, was seen as odd. The number of his six viola quintets is seen as rare in comparison to the 66 violoncello quintets written by Boccherini. Even though these quintets maybe rare in amount, many consider them the finest of the string quintet repertoire (Christiansen). The finer of our finest quintets begins in C major. The longest part of the first movement is undoubtedly the exposition.In the first of the one hundred and thirty-one measures of the exposition we see our first theme (see jut out 1). puzzle out 1 Ninety-four measures later we see our second theme (see Figure 2). Figure 2 Throughout the piece we will see our two themes event continuously in multiple keys. Anytime we see theme one return we see the two lines played between solely the first violin and the cello. We see similar segregation for theme two with the first and second violins. The one time we see the violas given a theme to play is in the coda, and will be d iscussed later, this theme we will see is theme two in C major.Listening further we discover that our development turns out to be the shortest part of the piece (Absil). Theme one reappears again in the beginning of the development section, only this time we see the theme appearing in the dominant of the piece (see Figure 3). Figure 3 As the development progresses we also see theme two return as well in its original key, the harmonies we see differently, only briefly because it will be what leads us into the recapitulation (see Figure 4). Figure 4 At the end of our very brief development we arrive at our recapitulation.In the recapitulation we see the return of both of our themes in the lively key. Throughout the recapitulation we see our theme variations return as well in the tonic key. What is found most notable about the recapitulation is the way it ends. One might assume that it would end on the tonic or dominant, because of its movement to the coda, just we find the end of th e recapitulation as a vii65/V (see Figure 5). Figure 5 We can argue the beginning of the coda here because of the bar of rest. This theory separates the two sections allowing us to make a clear observation where one ends and the other begins.As with codas we find our final theme in the piece the part proceeding the measure of rest (see Figure 5). Delving deeper into the coda we find theme two reoccurring in the tonic key, this time not single out by instrument parts. For the first time in the movement we see the two viola parts obviously playing what is the theme (see Figure 6), proficient before we see the second viola briefly mingle with the cello. Figure 6 After the brief return of theme two between the cello and violas we end happily on the tonic of the piece. Overall I thoroughly enjoyed this piece.Not only this piece but also this assignment. It is one thing to sit in class and read about and take notes over sonata-allegro form. It is completely another to be expected to dive deeper into a piece and try to figure out its inner most workings. As a violist I also appreciate the fact that Mozart went against the normality of the cello quintet and wrote a viola quintet. The fact he was willing to go against what was expected of him by society makes me respect him as a composer even more. After a glimpse into the life of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, we have discussed his Quintet No. 3 in C major.Discussed its themes and their placement, as well as briefly the variations of these themes. We also saw a brief glimpse into history slightly the time that the K. 515 and what could be considered its sister K. 516 were written. Works Cited Absil, Frans. Musical Analysis Visiting the Great Composers. (2005) 8. Absil, the Netherlands. Sept. 2012. Web. 7 Nov. 2012. . Christiansen, Kai. String Quintet (viola) No. 3 in C Major, K. 515. Mozart. Music at Kohl Mansion, 2012. Web. 7 Nov. 2012. . Cliff Eisen, et al. Mozart. Grove Music Online. Oxford University Press. Web . 18 Oct. 2012. http//www. oxfordmusiconline. com/suscriber/article/grove/music/40258pg3. Gallagher, Sean and Thomas Forrest Kelly. The Century of Bach and Mozart Perspectives on Histoiography, Composition, Theory, and Performance. Cambridge, Massachusettes Harvard University Press, 2008. marker. Jeffery, G. Mozart, Maria Anna Nannerl Mozart, Maria Anna Nannerl N. p. , 1998. Web. 5 Nov. 2012. . Kerst, Friedrich.Mozart the Man and the Artist Revealed in His Own Words. New York L. Dover Publications, 1965. Print Mirka, Danut. Metric Manipulations in Haydn and Mozart Chamber Music for Strings, 1787-1791. Oxford, New York Oxford University Press, 2009. Print Mozart, W. A. String Quintet No. 3 in C major, K. 515 (I). Alban Berg Quartet. EMI Classics. CD. Mozart, W. A. String Quintet No. 3 in C major, K. 515 (I). Fine liberal arts Quartet. Musical Concepts. CD Mozart, W. A. Quintet in C Major, K. 515 (I). Wolfgang Amadeus Mozarts Werk, Serie 14 Quartette fuer streichinstrumente. Leipzig Breitkopf und Haertel, 1877-1910. 1-12. Score.

Response to “The American Scholar” Essay

Post- Reading Response In Ralph Waldo Emersons 1837 address to the Phi Beta Kappa fraternity at Harvard, called The American Scholar, he makes clear his thoughts and ideas on the europiuman cultural and cerebral influence on America. Emerson wanted to get across that American scholars needed to create their own independent American literature and academic world, separate from European history. Emerson uses tone and style to further convey his ideas to the public.The tone that seems immutable throughout Emersons entire address is a confrontational one. Emerson is confronting the nation on its continuous grip on England and European ways. He is leaving circumstantial room for difference of opinion, instead challenging American citizens to do what they have feared most for so many years and let go of their English ties. I believe that the style used in Emersons speech is primarily persuasive. The entire address Emerson is attempting to persuade his audience to agree with his outloo k.I think that his last-ditch aspiration was not only to clearly state his ideas but also to help the public come to their own reasoning and opinions on the matter. Emersons confrontational and persuasive techniques used in his speech helped convince the nation that a crucial and valuable change had to be made. Fast-forwarding 173 years, America has successfully detached itself from Europe and we have distinguished ourselves as prominent philosophical and intellectual scholars.But is my generation threatening to reverse the clock and set us back 173 years? Our education in America has sky rocketed since 1837 but recently there has been a tremendous decline in academic and post-academic success. In an article called set Our Brains on Hold, Bob Herbert makes it clear that it is my generation to blame for this decline. According to him Americas young people are moving in exactly the molest direction, and that our society is more interested in hip-hop and Lady Gaga than educating its young. Another article we read in class was called Were No. 1(1) by Thomas L. Friedman. Id have to say that I do agree with Friedmans argument much more than Herberts. Both of these writers were ultimately smash at the same line of reasoning but the way each approached it varied significantly.

Pressure Measurement and Calibration

52 bosom MEASUREMENT AND CALIBRATION (TH2) 53 EQUIPMENT DIAGRAMS 54 55 56 EQUIPMENT DESCRIPTION Refer to the drawing on pages 56, 57 and 58. This equipment is a bench top unit designed to introduce students to insistency, public press scales and common devices available to neb instancy. The equipment comprises a Dead- charge Pressure Calibrator to generate a military issue of predetermine instancys, connected to a Bourdon count on and electronic military press demodulator to allow their characteristics, including accuracy and linearity, to be determined.The Dead- weight unit Pressure Calibrator, Bourdon cypher and ram detector be mounted on a common PVC base plate. The electrical storage locker is free al-Qaedaing. The Dead-weight Pressure Calibrator consists of precision ground plunger (10) and matching cylinder (11) with a peg down of weights (12). In normal use the appropriate combination of weights is utilise to the top of the speculator, to generate the requ ired predetermined pressure, and therefore the plunger is set twiddlening, to reduce vertical friction, while the readings from the measuring devices atomic number 18 recorded.The operating throw off of the Dead-weight Pressure Calibrator and performeration is 20 kNm-2 to two hundred kNm-2. The Bourdon cypher (5) and pressure detector (6) are mounted on a manifold block (2) with a priming watercraft (4) to contain the hydraulic runny which is chosen to be water for safety and ease of use. A priming valve (7) betwixt the reservoir and the manifold block allows the cylinder, manifold block and gauge on ravel to be easily primed with the water ready for use. A damping valve (8) in the midst of the cylinder and the manifold block allow the flow f water to be curb to demonstrate the practical application of damping. An additional isolating valve (9) on the manifold block allows water to be drained from the manifold block or allows alternative devices to be connected for cali bration. Such devices can be tested over the orbital cavity 20 kNm-2 to 200 kNm-2. The Bourdon gauge (5) supplied is a traditional industrial instrument with rotary scale and mechanical indicator. The gauge has a 6 diameter dial that incorporates an arbitrary scale calibrated in degrees of rotation (indep dismissent of unit pressure) in addition to the usual scale calibrated in units of kNm-2.A clear acrylic front face allows observation of the Bourdon d witness the st tonal patternsground the mechanism that converts deed of the Bourdon vacuum thermionic tube to rotation of the indicator hassle. The electronic pressure sensor (6) supplied incorporates a semi-conductor diaphragm that deflects when pressure is use by the working fluid. This deflection generates a voltage output that is proportional to the applied pressure. The pressure sensor should be connected to the socket (20) marked Pressure Sensor on the front of the console.The power supply, place conditioning circuitr y etc are contained in a wide electrical console (15) with appropriate current protection devices and an RCD (26) for operator protection. The electrical console is designed to stand alongside the Dead-weight Pressure Calibrator on the bench top. All circuits inside the console are operated by a main on/off switch (16) on the front of the console. 57 The various circuits inside the console are protected a cookst excessive current by miniature circuit breakers, as follows CONT (27) O/P (28) This breaker protects the power supply and circuits inside the console.This breaker protects the electrical output marked OUTPUT (23) at the rear of the console. The socket is employ to power the IFD3 interface used for data logging. The voltage from the pressure sensor is displayed on a digital meter (17) on the electrical console. An additional conditioning circuit incorporates aught and sail adjustments and allows the voltage output from the pressure sensor to be converted and displayed as a direct reading pressure meter calibrated in units of pressure. The nada go through (21) and span tick (22) are mounted on the front of the console for ease of use.A selector switch (18) allows the voltage from the sensor or the direct reading pressure reading to be displayed as required. The voltage from the pressure sensor is simultaneously connected to an I/O Port (19) for the connective to a PC using an optional interface device (TH-IFD) with educational software package (TH2-303). Alternatively, the signal can be connected to a exploiter supplied chart rec frame if required. Before use, the priming vessel must(prenominal) be filled with clean water (preferably deionized or demineralised water) and the calibrator, Bourdon gauge and pressure sensor fully primed. 8 OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES This equipment has been designed to operate over a range of pressures from 0 kN/m2 to 200 kN/m2 whitethorn damage the pressure sensors. In order to avoid such damage, DO not APPLY round-t he-clock force TO THE TOP OF THE PISTON ROD WHEN THE PRIMING VALVE IS CLOSED except by the application of the heapes supplied. An impulse may be applied to the plunger when operating at a fluid pressure of less than 200 kN/m2. This procedure is describe in Experiment P1.The by-line procedure should be followed to prime the Dead-weight Calibrator and pressure sensors, prior to taking readings Level the apparatus using the adjustable feet. A nib spirit level has been provided for this place, mounted on the base of the suddenly-weight calibrator. Check that the drain valve (at the prickle of the Bourdon gauge base) is closed. Fill the priming vessel with water (purified or de-ionized water is preferable). Open the damping valve and the priming valve. With no surveyes on the plumbers assistanter, slow draw the diver upwards a space of slightly 6 cm (i. . a full stroke of the diver). This draws water from the priming vessel into the clay. Firmly drive the plumbers helper downwards, to expel descent from the cylinder back towards the priming vessel. repeat these cardinal steps until no more bubbles are obvious in the system. It may be helpful to raise the central section of the return tube between the manifold block and the priming vessel. This testament help to prevent air being drawn back into the system as the piston is raised. deck up the piston close to the top of the cylinder, taking care non to lift it racy enough to allow ir to enter, and then close the priming valve. The succeeding(a) procedure describes the calibration of the semiconductor device pressure sensor. The procedure differs if using the optional TH-303 software, in which case users should instead refer to the Help Text provided with the software. Remove the piston from the cylinder, and switch the selector knob on the console to Pressure. This the zero control on the console until the display reads zero. This sets the root extension phone point for the sensor calibra tion. Return the piston to the cylinder, and reprime the system as described above. office all the supplied surveyes onto the piston, with the greatest mass (2 ? kg) being added last. This corresponds to an applied pressure of 200 kN/m2. purl the piston, and adjust the span control until the sensor output matches the applied pressure. This sets the second reference point for the calibration. 59 The calibration may be tested by applying a mass to the piston, spinning the piston in the cylinder, and then comparing the applied pressure to the sensor output. Each ? kg of applied mass corresponds to 20 kN/m2 of applied pressure. This piston itself conks an applied pressure of 20 kN/m2. 0 NOMENCLATURE FOR TH2 The following nomenclature has been used for the theory and calculations presented in this manual Name speculator diameter Cross-sectional area deal of piston battalion on mass piston utilize mass Acceleration ascribable to gravity employ pluck Nom d A Mp Mm Ma g F Units m m? kg kg kg m/s2 kg Type Given guided Given put down Calculated Given Recorded Definition The diameter of the dead weight calibrator piston. Cross-sectional area of dead weight calibrator cylinder. Mass of the dead-weight calibrator piston. Mass applied to piston. Ma = Mp + Mm g = 9. 1 m/s2 Force applied to fluid in system by piston and muckle. F = g x Ma Pressure applied to fluid by dead weight calibrator P = F/A Ambient (atmospheric) pressure of the surroundings. Applied pressure relative to the pressure of total vacuum Needle angle taken from Bourdon gauge scale semiconducting material output taken from console display Gauge pressure taken from Bourdon gauge scale Calibrated semiconductor output taken from console display Applied pressure barometrical pressure Absolute pressure Needle angle Semi-conductor output Indicated Bourdon gauge pressure Indicated semi-conductor pressurePa Patm Pabs ? e Pb Ps N/m2 N/m2 N/m2 Calculated Recorded Calculated degree Recorded V N/m2 N/m2 Rec orded Recorded Recorded 61 NOMENCLATURE FOR ERROR ANALYSIS The following nomenclature has been used for the illusion analysis presented in this manual Name Indicated cherish Actual value wind Definition Gauge reading, i. e. the pressure indicated by sensor used True pressure, pressure applied by dead-weight calibrator Total range of values covered in the results, or total range of values measurable on instrument scale.Calculation Pi = Pb or Ps, depending on the sensor used Actual value = Applied pressure, Pa Range = Largest result Smallest result = Pi max Pi min or Range = Maximum come-at-able reading Minimum possible reading (200 kN/m? for apparatus used) No calculation. Precise data have a small scatter, indicating borderline random error ea = Pi Pa ea max = ? (Pi Pa)max? e%a = ea max X 100 Pa e%f = ea max X 100 Range Pmin = P1 + P2 + .. + Pn n da = Pi Pmin dm = da1 + da2 + + dan n ? = da12 + da32 + + dan2 n-1 ? PrecisionHow closely the results agree with from each one other. Actual difference Modulus of the difference between indicated value and effective value the true Maximum difference between indicated pressure and actual pressure office accuracy Greatest difference between of actual scale reading indicated pressure and actual pressure, as a percentage of the actual pressure. Percentage accuracy Greatest difference between of all-out reading indicated pressure and actual pressure, as a percentage of the range. Mean Sum of results separate by number of results.Absolute exit Difference between a private result and the have in mind of several results Mean digression Sum of the imperative deviations divided by the number of inviolable deviations Standard deviation Commonly used value in analysis of statistical data 62 DATA SHEET 7 RELATIVE AND ABSOLUTE PRESSURE The measuring stick of any physical property relies upon comparison with some fixed reference point. Pressure is one such property, and pressure meter must begin by defini ng a suitable fixed point. An obvious reference point is that of the ambient pressure of the surroundings.Pressure scales have been based around a zero point of the pressure of the atmosphere at sea level. Pressures lower than atmospheric are assigned negative values pressures higher than atmospheric have positively charged values. Gauges for measuring pressure give readings relative to this zero point, by comparing the pressure of interest to the pressure of the surrounding air. Pressure metrical with such a gauge is given relative to a fixed value, and is sometimes termed gauge pressure. Gauge measure pressure difference between the pressure to be measured and the barometric (ambient) pressure.This may then need adjusting, to take into account any difference between barometric pressure and the pressure at sea level. some(prenominal) calculations using equations derived from fundamental physical laws require unattackable pressure values. Absolute pressure is the pressure relati ve to a total absence of pressure (i. e. a total vacuum). On an absolute pressure scale, all pressures have a positive value. The following chart illustrates the difference between gauge pressure, barometric pressure, and absolute pressure. 63DATA SHEET 8 TECHNICAL DATA The following information may be of use when using this apparatus Operating range of dead-weight pressure calibrator Diameter of dead-weight calibrator piston Cross-sectional calibrator area of dead-weight 20 kN/m2 200 kN/m2 0. 017655 m 0. 000245 m2 20 kN/m2 150 mL Pressure produced in cylinder by mass of piston with no applied masses Approximate capacity of priming vessel 64 EXPERIMENT P1 CONCEPTS OF PRESSURE AND PRESSURE SENSOR doings quarry To gain a basic understanding of the concept of pressure and its measurement.To investigate the behavior of two kinds of pressure sensor, and the effect of damping on pressure measurement. To gain a basic understanding of the concept of pressure and its measurement. To inv estigate the behaviour of two kinds of pressure sensor To observe the effect of damping on pressure measurement METHOD To investigate the response of two kinds of pressure sensor to a pressure applied by a dead-weight calibrator device. To investigate the response of these sensors to the application of a sudden pressure spike, with varying levels of restriction of the liquid between the pressure application and the sensor.THEORY Pressure is the force exerted by a medium, such as a fluid, on an area. In the TH2 apparatus, pressure is exerted by a piston on a editorial of water. The pressure applied is then equal to the force exerted by the piston over the cross-sectional area of the fluid. The use of the piston and masses with the cylinder generates a measurable reference pressure, Pa Pa = Fa A 65 where Fa = gMa, and Fa = force applied to the liquid, Ma = total mass (incl. piston), and A = area of piston. The area of the piston can be explicit in legal injury of its diameter, d, as A = ? d2 4The units of each variable must agree for the equations to be valid. Using SI units, Pa will be in Newtons per fledge metre (N/m? , also known as Pascals) if Fa is in Newtons, A is in even up metres, and d is in metres. The use of specific units of pressure will be covered in exercise B. For this exercise the area of the cylinder is a constant. The pressure can therefore be considered directly proportional to the mass applied to the mass on the piston Pressure measurement is normally concerned with measuring the effects of a pressure differential between two points in a fluid.The simplest form of pressure sensor is a manometer tube, in which a tube of fluid is exposed at one end to the eldest point in the fluid, and at the other to the second point. Any pressure differential causes a displacement of fluid within the tube, which is proportional to the difference. Manometers (not include with the TH2 apparatus) are cheap, simple, and can be designed to cover a wide ra nge of pressures. However, they are best used for measuring tranquil pressures below about 600 kN/m? , as the required height of the fluid becomes unworkable at greater pressures.Their dynamic response is poor, so they are best suited to measuring static or slowly changing pressures. Some fluids used are toxic (such as mercury), and may be susceptible to temperature change. The Bourdon- fibre pressure gauge consists of a slew tube of oval cross-section. One end is closed, and is left free to move. The other end is left open to allow fluid to enter, and is fixed. The outside of the tube dust at ambient pressure. When fluid pressure inside the tube exceeds the pressure outside the tube, the section of the tube tends to 66 ecome eyeshade, causing the tube to straighten (internal pressure lower than the ambient pressure conversely causes increased flattening, and the curve of the tube increases). A simple mechanical linkage transmits the movement of the free end of the tube to a poi nter moving around dial. This type of gauge is one of the two kinds included in the TH2 apparatus. The second type of pressure gauge included as part of the TH2 is an electromechanical device. In a basic semiconductor pressure sensor, silicon ancestry gauges are fixed to one side of a diaphragm.The two sides of the diaphragm are exposed to the two different pressures. Any pressure differential causes the diaphragm to expand towards the lower-pressure side, producing a change in the strain gauge voltage reading. The electronic semiconductor pressure sensor included with the TH2 is a more refined device with improved reliability and sensitivity for pressure measurement. It includes temperature compensation to reduce the effects of temperature variation on the results. The strain gauges used are formed by laying down a protective pullulate of glass onto stainless steel, followed by a thin film of silicon.The silicon is doped to produce semiconductor properties, and a mask is photopri nted onto it. The unmasked silicon is then removed, departure a pattern of silicon semiconductor strain gauges molecularly bonded onto the surface of the steel. The gauges are connected to an Ohmmeter done a Wheatstone bridge, to amplify the signal produced. 67 In this type of sensor, a diaphragm is still used, but instead of fixing the strain gauges to the surface, the deflection of the diaphragm moves a steel force rod. This transfers the force to one end of the steel strip that the semiconductor resistors are bonded to.The resulting deflection of the strip causes compression in some strain gauges, and tension in others, changing their resistance and producing a measurable output. Both the TH2 pressure sensors are set up to indicate the pressure differential between atmospheric pressure, and fluid pressurized with the use of the dead-weight calibrator. The fluid passes through a damping valve, positioned between the calibrator and the sensors. By partially closing the valve, flu id flow can be restricted. This affects the speed at which pressure is transferred from the point of application to the sensors.EQUIPMENT objurgate UP Level the apparatus using the adjustable feet. A circular spirit level has been provided for this purpose, mounted on the base of the dead-weight calibrator. Check that the drain valve (at the back of the Bourdon gauge base) is closed. Fill the priming vessel with water (purified or de-ionized water is preferable). Fully open the damping valve and the priming valve With no masses on the piston, slowly draw the piston upwards a distance of approximately 6cm (i. e. a full stroke of the piston). This draws water from the priming vessel into the system.Firmly drive the piston downwards, to expel air from the cylinder back towards the priming vessel. quote these two steps until no more bubbles are visible in the system. It may be helpful to raise the central section of the return tube between the manifold block and 68 the priming vessel. This will help to prevent air being drawn back into the system as the piston is raised. help the piston close to the top of the cylinder, taking care not to lift it high enough to allow air to enter, and then close the priming valve.PROCEDURE This equipment has been designed to operate over a range of pressure from 0 kN/m2 to 200 kN/m2. exceeding a pressure of 200 kN/m2 may damage the pressure sensors. In order to avoid such damage, DO NOT APPLY CONTINUOUS PRESSURE TO THE TOP OF THE PISTON ROD WHEN THE PRIMING VALVE IS CLOSED except by application of the mass supplied. An impulse may be applied to the piston when operating at a fluid pressure of less than 200 kN/m2, as is described later in this procedure. Behavior of pressure sensors commotion the piston in the cylinder, to minimize friction effects between the piston and the cylinder wall. small-arm the piston is spinning, record the angle through which the Bourdon gauge needle has moved, and the voltage output of the electron ic sensor. Apply a ? kg mass to the piston. Spin the piston and take a second set of readings for the Bourdon gauge needle angle and the electronic sensor. Repeat the procedure in ? kg increments. When using several masses, it will be necessary to place the 2 ? kg mass on top of the other masses. Repeat the procedure while removing the masses again, in ? kg increments. This gives two results for each applied mass, which may be averaged in order to reduce the effects of any error in an individual reading.Effect of damping Apply a single mass to the piston, and spin it. While the piston is spinning, apply an impulse to the top of the piston by striking the top of the rod once, with the flat of the hand. Watch the behavior of the Bourdon gauge needle. point out the final sensor reading after the response settles. Slightly close the damping valve. Change the mass, spin the piston again, and apply an impulse to the rod. Observe any changes in the sensor responses. Repeat the procedure, closing the damping valve a little at a time and noting the response and the final sensor reading each time.RESULTS Tabulate your results under the following headings- 69 Mass applied to calibrator Mm (kg) Deflection of Bourdon gauge needle (degrees) Output from electrochemical pressure sensor (mV) Notes on sensor behavior (damping) diagram a graph of sensor response against applied mass for each sensor. 70 EXPERIMENT P2 CONCEPTS OF PRESSURE MEASUREMENT AND CALIBRATION OBJECTIVE To convert an arbitrary scale of pressure sensor output into engineering units. To calibrate a semiconductor pressure sensor. METHOD To make use of a dead-weight calibrator in order to produce known forces in a fluid.THEORY It is recommended that students read Data Sheet 1 Relative and Absolute Pressures before achievement with this exercise. Pressure sensor calibration Variation in a pressure sensor reading may be calibrated, using known pressures, to give a gauge reading in engineering units. From exerc ise A, the dead-weight calibrator used in the TH2 produces a known reference pressure by applying a mass to a column of fluid. The pressure produced is Pa = F Aa where Fa = gMa, and Fa is the force applied to the liquid in the calibrator cylinder.Ma is the total mass (including that of the piston) 71 g is the acceleration due to gravity, and A is the area of piston. The area of the piston can be expressed in terms of its diameter, d, as A = ? d2 4 The pressure in the fluid may then be calculated in the relevant engineering units. These known pressures may then be compared to the pressure sensor outputs over a range of pressures. The relationship between sensor output and pressure may be turned into a direct scale, as on the Bourdon gauge scale. Alternatively, a reference graph may be produced.Where the relationship is linear and the sensor output is electrical, the sensor may be calibrated using simple amplifier (a conditioning circuit). When using SI units, the units of pressure ar e Newtons per square meter (N/m? , also known as Pascals). To calculate the pressure in N/m? , M must be in kg, d in m, and g in m / s?. For the pressure range covered in this exercise, it will be more convenient to use units of kN/m? , where 1 kN/m? = 1000 N/m? (1 N/m? = 0. 001 kN/m? ). Barometric pressure pressure units and scale conversion Barometric pressures is usually measured in bar.One bar is equal to a force of 105 N applied over an area of 1m?. While bar and N/m? have the same scale interval, pressure in bar often has a more convenient value when measuring barometric pressure. Pressure may also be measured in millimetres of mercury (mmHg). The pressure is given in terms of the height of a column of mercury that would be required to exert an equivalent pressure to that being measured. Another possible unit of measurement is atmospheres (atm). One standard atmosphere was originally defined as being equal to the pressure at sea level at a temperature of 15C.A pressure unit st ill in everyday use is pounds per square inch (psi or lbf / in.? ). One psi is equal to a weight of one pound applied over an area of 1 in.? If a barometer is available to measure the ambient pressure in the room where the equipment is located, the barometer reading should be converted SI units. Pressures may be converted from one scale to another using a conversion factor. A list of conversion factors is provided below. 72 1 atm = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = 101. 3 x 103 101. 3 1. 013 760 14. 696 100 x 103 100 0. 987 750. 006 14. 504 133. 3 x 103 133. 3 1. 33 1. 316 19. 337 6. 895 x 106 6. 895 x 103 68. 948 68. 046 51. 715 N/m2 kN/m2 bar mmHg psi N/m2 kN/m2 atm mmHg psi N/m2 kN/m2 bar atm psi N/m2 kN/m2 bar atm mmHg 1 bar 1 mmHg x 103 1 psi x 103 ADDITIONAL EQUIPMENT REQUIRED Values for the piston diameter and weight are provided. These may be replaced by your own measurements if desired. The following equipment will be required to do so a) Vernier callipers or a ruler, t o measure the piston diameter b) A weigh-balance or similar, to measure the piston weight EQUIPMENT SET UP Carefully remove the piston from the cylinder, weigh it.Take care not to damage the piston, as it is part of a high precision instrument and any damage will affect the accuracy of the experimental results. Level the apparatus using the adjustable feet. A circular spirit level has been mounted on the base of the dead weight calibrator for this purpose. Check that the drain valve (at the back of the Bourdon gauge base) is closed. Fill the priming vessel with water (purified or de-ionized water is preferable). Open the damping valve and the priming valve. 73 With no masses on the piston, slowly draw the piston upwards a distance of approximately 6cm (i. e. full stroke of the piston). This draws water from the priming vessel into the system. Firmly drive the piston downwards, to expel air from the cylinder back towards the priming vessel. Repeat these two steps until no more bubble s are visible in the system. It may be helpful to raise the central section of the return tube between the manifold block and the priming vessel. This will help to prevent air being drawn back into the system as the piston is raised. Raise the piston close to the top of the cylinder, taking care not to lift it high enough to allow air to enter, and then close the priming valve. coterie the selector switch on the console to Output. PROCEDURE This equipment has been designed to operate over a range of pressure from 0 kN/m2 to 200 kN/m2. Exceeding a pressure of 200 kN/m2 may damage the pressure sensors. In order to avoid such damage, DO NOT APPLY CONTINUOUS PRESSURE TO THE TOP OF THE PISTON ROD WHEN THE PRIMING VALVE IS CLOSED except by application of the mass supplied. Conversion of an arbitrary scale into engineering units Spin the piston to reduce the effects of friction in the cylinder. With the needle still spinning, record the angle indicated by the Bourdon gauge needle.Place a ? kg mass on the piston, and spin the piston. Record the value of the applied mass, and the angle indicated by the Bourdon gauge needle. Increase the applied mass in increment of ? kg. Spin the piston and record the needle angle each increment. Repeat the measurements while decreasing the applied mass in steps of ? kg. This gives two readings for each applied mass, which may be averaged to reduce the effect of any error in an individual reading. Calculate the applied pressure at each mass increment. Calculate the average needle angle at each pressure increment.Repeat the experiment, this time recording the applied mass and the indicated pressure on the Bourdon gauge scale. Compare this to the average needle angle recorded previously. 74 Calibration of a semiconductor pressure sensor NOTE This procedure differs if the TH2-303 software is being used. Please refer to the online product Help Text if using this software. Spin the piston. Record the voltage indicated on the semiconductor o utput display on the console. Place a ? kg mass on the piston, and spin the piston. Record the applied mass, and the voltage indicated on the semiconductor output display on the console.Increase the applied mass in steps of ? kg, spinning the piston and recording the semiconductor output each time. Repeat the measurement while decreasing the applied mass in steps of ? kg. Calculate the applied pressure at each mass increment. Calculate the average sensor output at each pressure increment. Slowly open the priming valve. Open the valve to its maximum, and check that the damping valve is also fully open. The fluid in the system will now be at approximately atmospheric pressure (it will be slightly higher than atmospheric due to the height of fluid in the reservoir, but this is trifling compared to the range of the sensors). bemuse the selector knob on the console to PRESSURE Turn the ZERO control on the console until the display read zero, to set the first reference point for the senso r calibration. Raise the piston close to the top of the cylinder, taking care not to lift it high enough to allow air to enter, and then close the priming valve. Place a large mass on the piston, and calculate the corresponding applied pressure. Spin the piston and adjust the SPAN control until the sensor output matches the applied pressure, to set the second reference point for the calibration. Remove the masses from the piston.Take a set of readings from the calibrated semiconductor sensor, by adding masses to the piston in ? kg increments. Repeat the reading while decreasing the applied mass. This gives two reading for each applied mass, which may be averaged in order to reduce the effect of any error in an individual reading. 75 RESULTS Tabulate your results under the following headings Barometric pressure Mass of piston Mp Diameter of cylinder, d Cross-sectional area of cylinder, A Mass on piston Mm (kg) Applied mass Ma (kg) Applied force Fa (N) Applied pressure . . .. ..Needle angle N/m2 kg m m2 Indicated Indicated SemiBourdon conductor semiconductor pressure pressure output Pb Ps Pa E ? (mV) (N/m2) (degrees) (N/m2) (N/m2) Plot graphs of average needle angle against applied pressure for the Bourdon gauge, and voltage output against applied pressure for the semiconductor sensor. Plot a graph of indicated pressure against actual pressure for the Bourdon gauge and the calibrated semiconductor pressure sensor. If there is facility for measuring barometric pressure, it is possible to calculate the absolute pressure corresponding to each applied pressure increment.The ambient pressure of the surroundings, Patm should be measured, then converted into N/m2 (if required). An additional column should be added to the results table Absolute Pressure, Pabs (N/m2). Absolute pressure may then be calculated as Pabs = Pa + Patm 76 EXPERIMENT P3 ERRORS IN PRESSURE MEASUREMENT OBJECTIVE To investigate the sources of error when measuring pressure. METHOD Errors in measuring a quantity, such as pressure, can come from a number of sources. Some can be eliminated by careful choice of equipment and experimental method. Other errors are unavoidable, but can be minimized.In any experiment, it is rock-steady practice to note any possible sources of error in the results, and to give an indication of the magnitude of such errors. Errors fall into three general categories Avoidable errors These are errors that must be eliminated, as any results including such errors will often be meaningless. Such errors include Incorrect use of equipment Incorrect recording of results Errors in calculations Chaotic errors, i. e. random disturbances, such as extreme vibration or electrical noise that are sufficient to mask the experimental results. 7 haphazard errors Random errors should be eliminated if possible, by changing the design of the experiment or waiting until conditions are more favorable. Even if they cannot be eliminated, many random errors may be minimized by making multiple sets of readings, and averaging the results. Random errors include Variation of experimental conditions (e. g. changes in ambient temperature) Variation in instrumentation performance Variation due to material properties and design (e. g. effect of friction) Errors of judgement (e. g. nconstancy in estimating a sensor reading) Systematic errors Systematic errors produce a constant predetermine or skew in the results, and should be minimized where possible. They include Built-in errors (e. g. zero error, incorrect scale graduation) Experimental errors (due to poor design of the experiment or the apparatus) Systematic human errors (e. g. reading from the wrong side of a liquid meniscus) Loading error (errors introduced as a result of the act of measurement- for example, the temperature of a investigation altering the temperature of the body being measured)Errors may also be described in a number of ways Actual difference the difference between the indicate d value (the value indicated by the gauge or sensor) and the actual scale reading (the true value of the property being measured). The actual value must be known to calculate the actual difference. Accuracy the maximum amount by which the results vary from the actual value. The actual value must be known. Percentage accuracy of the actual scale reading the greatest difference between the actual value and the indicated value, expressed as a percentage of the actual value.The actual value must be known. Percentage accuracy of the full-scale reading (total range of the measurement device) the greatest difference between the actual value and the indicated value, expressed as a percentage of the maximum value of the range being used. The actual value must be known. Mean deviation (or probable error) The absolute deviation of a single result is the difference between a single result, and the average (mean) of several results. The mean deviation is the sum of the absolute deviations di vided by their number. The actual value is not required.The mean deviation is an indication of how closely the results agree with each other. 78 Standard deviation (or mean square error) the standard deviation is the square root of the mean of the squares of the deviations (better results are obtained by dividing the sum of the values by the one less than the number of values). This is a common measure of the preciseness of a sample of data- how closely the results agree with each other. The actual value is not required. ADDITIONAL EQUIUPMENT REQUIRED Values for the piston diameter and weight are provided. These may be replaced by your own measurements if desired.The following equipment will be required to do so Vernier callipers or a ruler, to measure the piston diameter A weigh-balance or similar, to measure the piston weight EQUIPMENT SET UP To prime the cylinder, the following procedure should be followed (where this is required in the experiment) Level the apparatus using th e adjustable feet. A circular spirit level has been mounted on the base of the dead weight calibrator for this purpose. Check that the drain valve (at the back of the Bourdon gauge base) is closed. Fill the priming vessel with water (purified or de-ionized water is preferable).Fully open the damping valve and the priming valve. With no masses on the piston, slowly draw the piston upwards a distance of approximately 6cm (i. e. a full stroke of the piston). This draws water from the priming vessel into the system. Firmly drive the piston downwards, to expel air from the cylinder back towards the priming vessel. Repeat these two steps until no more bubbles are visible in the system. It may be helpful to raise the central section of the return tube between the manifold block and the priming vessel. This will help to prevent air being drawn back into the system as the piston is raised.Raise the piston close to the top of the cylinder, taking care not to lift it high enough to allow air t o enter, then close the priming valve. PROCEDURE This equipment has been designed to operate over a range of pressure from 0 kN/m2 to 200 kN/m2. Exceeding a pressure of 200 kN/m2 may damage the pressure sensors. In order to avoid such damage, DO NOT APPLY CONTINUOUS PRESSURE TO THE 79 TOP OF THE PISTON ROD WHEN THE PRIMING VALVE IS CLOSED except by application of the mass supplied. The following experiments give suggested ways in which particular sources of error may be investigated.It is recommended that only one or two be attempted in a single laboratory session, with each being repeated several times, giving multiple samples for the error analysis. Basic Error Analysis The accuracy of the semiconductor calibration may be investigated by performing standard error calculations on the calibrated sensor output, using the results obtained in Experiment P2. If results are not available for analysis, the following procedure should be followed Slowly open the priming valve. Open the valv e to its maximum, and check that the damping valve is also fully open.The fluid in the system will now be at approximately atmospheric pressure (it will be slightly higher than atmospheric due to the height of fluid in the reservoir, but this is negligible compared to the range of the sensors). Switch the selector knob on the console to PRESSURE. Turn the ZERO control on the console until the display read zero, to set the first reference point for the sensor calibration. Raise the piston close to the top of the cylinder, taking care not to lift it high enough to allow air to enter, then close the priming valve. Place a large mass on the piston, and calculate the corresponding applied pressure.Spin the piston, and adjust the SPAN control until the sensor output matches the applied pressure, to set the second reference point for the calibration. Remove the masses from the piston. Take a set of readings from the calibrated semiconductor sensor, adding masses to the pan in ? kg incremen ts, and again while decreasing the applied mass. This provides two set of readings for data analysis. The experiment should be repeated to provide march on sets of data. Avoidable errors Incorrect use of equipment Level the apparatus using the adjustable feet.A circular spirit level has been mounted on the base of the dead-weight calibrator for this purpose Check that the drain valve (at the back of the Bourdon gauge base) is closed, and the damping valve is fully open. 80 Remove the piston from the cylinder, then fill the priming vessel with water (purified or de-ionized water is preferable). Close the priming valve, then replace the piston in the cylinder. Take a set of readings without priming the system first. Random errors Friction effects Prime the system as described in the equipment set up instructions.Tilt the board at an angle of about 5 to 10 degrees. THE EQUIPMENT sales booth MUST STILL BE FIRM AND SECURE. Titling the apparatus in this way will exaggerate any friction effects, as the force applied by the piston will no longer be acting straight downwards on the column of fluids, but will have components acting at right-angles to cylinder wall. Spin the piston. Take one reading while the piston is spinning, then observe the behavior of the needle. Continue to watch the needle as the piston stops spinning, then make a note of the new gauge reading. Apply masses to the piston in ? kg increments.At each step, spin the piston, note the sensor output, and then take a second reading after the piston stops spinning. Systematic errors Zero error Calibrate the semiconductor pressure sensor, but do not include mass of piston in the applied mass when calculating the applied pressure. Take a set of readings from the calibrated semiconductor sensor over a range of applied masses, now including the piston mass in the applied mass calculation. Human error Take a set or readings from the Bourdon gauge pressure scale, but stand at an angle to the dial face when ta king each reading. Keep the same viewing angle for each reading.This illustrates the effect of parallax on the readings taken. RESULTS Tabulate your results under the headings on the following page For each result, calculate the absolute difference, ea between indicated value Pi and the applied pressure Pa. 81 Find the maximum absolute difference, the accuracy ea max and use this value and the corresponding indicated pressure to calculate the % accuracy of actual scale reading and the % accuracy of full-scale reading (use a range of 200 kN/m2). Correlate the data for several test runs, to give a set of indicated pressure readings corresponding to a single applied pressure.Use this correlated data table to calculate the mean of the results, Pmean, the mean deviation, dm, the absolute deviation, da, and the standard deviation, ?. Errors can also be illustrated graphically 85 Piston diameter, d = . m Piston mass, MP = .. kg Experimental conditions Mass Applied Applied Applied Indicat ed Mean Absolute Standard Actual Accuracy % % Mean on deviation deviation deviation Accuracy Accuracy of mass force pressure pressure difference piston Actual Full result scale scale reading reading Mm dm da PI ea Emax e%a e%f Pmin Ma Fa Pa ? kg) (kg) (kN) (kN/m2) (kN/m2) (kN/m2) (kN/m2) (kN/m2) (kN/m2) 86 Plot a graph of actual pressure against indicated pressure. On the same graph, plot a straight line showing the actual pressure. This will illustrate three characteristics of the results Deviation of sensor readings from the actual value. Whether any deviation from the true reading is systematic (the graph will be a straight line or a smooth curve) or random (the graph will have no obvious relationship). Precision of the results. Precise results will be close together, not widely scattered. Precise results may still turn strongly from the actual value.

Privilege: Racism and Jim Crow Laws Essay

The essay White Privilege and Male Privilege written by Peggy McIntosh was enlightening and controversial. It was enlightening because she shows you how certain groups of volume can require privilege over other different groups, and be unaware or in denial over it. Peggys story was controversial because it talked about the privilege that very few have the courage to talk about. The white and male privilege and the fact that it is looming over our heads as a society. end-to-end history theres a superior and inferior race and sex.The superior race is the white race, opposed to the African Americans who are considered the inferior. Additionally workforce are the superior sex opposed to wo manpower. Race is a sensitive subject when discussed due to the painful history of our country, most notably the plight of African Americans. African Americans have had a painful background of slavery and inequalities along with unjust rights they had to endure. They were not considered humans, but were property of their white slave owners. Racism has been genial constructed for many decades.It is possible that the racial hierarchy can control many aspects of the human life. It can control what kind of jobs you receive, politics, media, insurance, and counterbalance your place of residence this is evocative of the Jim Crow laws. Jim Crow laws were not only anti black laws but a way of life predominantly for southern people. The Jim Crow laws were constructed to keep African Americans from climbing higher on the social ladder. Education, transportation and work were kept at a bare minimum for African Americans. Under no bureau necessary was any African American to act as if they were equal to the white race.It ultimately controlled where they were allowed to go and what they were allowed to do. If for any reason this law was broken, consequences were normally implemented by physical force consequences for challenging whites and their authority. This was a way for the white s to maintain dominance and ensure the African Americans stayed at the bottom of the racial hierarchy. This was the cost for be born black. For being born into a society where your race was the ultimate factor in your social status, and rather than being born into a earth of acceptance, you were born into a world of exile.This portrays in the United States the black and white color lines that have been imbedded into our minds and enforced due to the dominance of the white race for so long. Men also have advantages over women, especially politically. Even though times have changed and women are able to vote, men still are the tyrannic force in politics. Women have to fight longer, harder and be three times more qualified than a man to get some positions or to even qualify for jobs over a man. When some women are appointed higher positions over men they get criticized and sometimes even degraded because of it.Some men dont even see or recognize when this occurs. Many white people a re in denial of prec at a timeived notions that they might have on a certain person or group because of their race. I myself have been a victim of racism at work. People choose to study the color of your skin indicates your worth. Some expect you to fail and not succeed because of this. They expect you to meet the standard of the person they have seen on TV, in a movie, or on the radio. However, what they dont realize is that these are stereotypes that the media portray of a certain group and that perception is not always accurate.They also accede a bad experience with one individual, and deem an entire race that way. No one knows why we come in so many shades sizes and variations. However, we do know that the social concepts of race deprives from the history that one has come from. Race as well as the sex of a person was once used as a tactic of fear, fear that was instilled in a person to make them powerless and inferior to another race. Although many things have changed for the bettor in our society, racism and the sex of a person is still a dominate factor.

Global Warming and its Effects on Society Essay

Global warm up or climate change is defined as any substantial change in the acress climate that can go on for an extended period of time. Global calefacient can cause an increase in the average temperature of the sink atmosphere. It can have different causes, but the one reason pinpointed as its cause is human interference, particularly the release of excessive amounts of greenhouse gases (EPA, 2006 cited in YeSeul Kim et al). on that point are several greenhouse gases, manage carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), water vapor, and fluorinated gases which act like a greenhouse on earth.Since the situation is that in that location are more than greenhouse gases, then there would be a bigger chance of the heat trapped in the earths atmosphere. The earth cannot function in its present state if there are no occurring greenhouse gases, such as CO2, CH4, and water vapor. This means that without greenhouse gases, there will be no heat trapped in atmosphere, thus, the earth will becom e very cold. (NASA, 2002 as cited in YeSeul Kim et al). Scientists say that they have confirmed that climate change is caused by human activity (Scientists say global warming is undeniable).They have even presented their findings to the American Association for the Advancement of Science in Washington. Evidence is that when one looks at the oceans and the melting of the Arctic ice, it leaves no room for one to doubt that global warming is indeed happening today. It was even set offed by Tim Barnett of the Scripps foundation of Oceanography that clean computer models that are able to look into ocean temperatures demonstrate the clearest sign that global warming is already happening (Scientists say global warming is undeniable). Scientists like Dr.Barnett say in no uncertain terms that the real place to look is in the ocean. His team has conducted numerous temperature readings made by the US interior(a) Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration in order to calculate steady ocean war ming. This report was published after the United Nations Kyoto Protocol composed of 141-nation environmental pact. The US team made use of solar warming and volcanic warming, in order to account for the measurements made. Even observing animals lead these scientists to conclude that there are clear effects on animals.Other researchers found clear effects on climate and animals. Ruth Curry of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution revealed that melting ice is now already changing the water cycle, which in turn affects ocean currents and then finally, the climate. There are also droughts happening in the west and in Greenlands ice cap which is composed of ice enough to raise sea levels by seven meters (Scientists say global warming is undeniable). A recent documentary on UK Channel 4 entitled The Great Global Warming Swindle challenged the political view that global warming is caused by man-made factors.However, the movie says that the sun that is responsible for the current changes in the Earths temperature. The film shows the many opinions of scientists and climate experts that spur a developing dissent to the man-made theory. But these are all theories. Scientists have reminded us that the Sun determines our seasons, and has a bigger impact on the climate. German and Swiss scientists reveal that there is an increase in radiation from the sun that results in the present climate change. (Marshall). There are also researches saying that global warming is a lie which is propagated by the media.They reckon that the temperature estimates of past climates are just estimates. These have been estimated by scientists who try to prove that global warming exists. Some still notice that global warming is just another conspiracy to bring Americans down (Global Warming The Great Lie). In the end, the more important thing to remember is how to maven the environment when it is changing due to the global warming especially when there are confusing information about the re al status of global warming and how people can cope up with it.(All Global Warming is Local-The political relation and Science of Regional Climate Impacts). Most of the critical issues that global warming reckon is how to prepare for these climate changes. The U. N. s Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change released Climate Change 2007 The Physical Science Basis, Summary for Policymakers which is mainly a political document. Media is using this to gear up more sentiments among the people. (Bender, 2007). This is supposedly being edited to conform to the political agenda of the UN politicians.The document states that Changes made after acceptance by the Working Group or the Panel shall be those necessary to ensure consistency with the Summary for Policymakers or the Overview Chapter. And whether one likes it or not, the continued rapid cooling of the earth since WWII is in accord with the increase in global air pollution associated with industrialization, mechanization, urbaniza tion and exploding population. (Reid Bryson, Global Ecology Readings towards a rational scheme for Man, 1971 as cited in Bender).WORKS CITEDAll Global Warming is Local-The Politics and Science of Regional Climate Impacts. Nov. 12, 2007. Retrieved January 2, 2008 at http//www. desmogblog. com/all-global-warming-is-local-the-politics-and- science-of-regional-climate-impacts Bender, John. Man-Made Global Warming Is Politics Not Science. Etherzone. Fen. 12, 2007. Retrieved January 2, 2008 at http//www. prisonplanet. com/articles/february2007/130207Warming. htm Global Warming The Great Lie. Retrieved January 2, 2008 at http//www. geocities.com/northstarzone/GLOBAL. html Marshall, Andrew. Global Warming A Convenient Lie. Global Research. March 15, 2007. Retrieved January 2, 2008 at http//www. globalresearch. ca/index. php? context=viewArticle&code=20070315& articleId=5086 Scientists say global warming is undeniable. ABC News Online. Retrieved January 2, 2008 at http//www. abc. net. au/ne ws/newsitems/200502/s1306233. htm YeSeul Kim, Erika Granger, Katie Puckett, Cankutan Hasar, and Leif Francel Global Warming Definition. Retrieved January 2, 2008 at

How to Differentiate Hrd and T&D

In the early 1980s, the field of personnel counsel shifted its function from handling staffing and related to administrative activities to the learning of people as a resource of the judicature (Sims, R. 2006). Thus, here comes the field of charitable resourcefulness Development (HRD). The term HRD started out prototypic simply as training, then come to into training and information(T&D), and fin all toldy into HRD. Therefore, some confusion arise relating to the difference between Human Resource Development and training and development.In order to differentiate HRD and T&D, the author illustrates this essay by clarify the definition of HRD and T&D, their respective main purport, and the strategies of individually term. I. Definition 1. Definition of HRD Because of the evolving nature of HRD, defining HRD is difficult. The first definition of HRD offered by Harbison and Myers related HRD to broad contexts, including economy, political, social and culture contexts, rather than just individuals and organizations.They defined HRD as a process to increase the knowledge, skills and capacities of all the people in a society In stinting terms, it could be described as the accumulation of human capital and its in force(p) investment in the development of an economy. In political terms, HRD prepares people for adult participation in the political process, particularly as citizens in a democracy. From the social and cultural points of view, the development of human resources helps people lead fuller and richer lives, less bound(p) to tradition. (Harbison and Myers, 1964)HRD was also referred as a learning experience provided by employees, leading to the improvement of their instruction execution and/all personalised growth (Nadler and Nadler, 1989). A recent definition from Swanson (2009) explained the term HRD as a process of development and unleashing expertise which aimed at improving organizational system, work process, team, and individual performan ce. 2. Definition of T&D broadly speaking speaking, training and development is defined as a field concerned with organizational activity whose neutral is to improve the performance of individuals and groups in organizational context.To be specific, writers of some literatures have divided the term T&D into two independent parts training and development. Separated definition for each phrase is created, which makes the definition of training and development quite straightforward. Training was defined as a planned and overbearing process to modify or develop attitude, knowledge or skills through learning experiences, to achieve effective performance in an activity or range of activities. (Garavan et al. ,1995 Harrison, 1993 Reid et al. 1994) .A separate definition of development was that the growth or realization of a persons ability through conscious or unconscious learning, which usually includes elements of planned study and experience supported by coaching and counseling (Wi lson, 1999). Similarities can be seen from these definitions that two HRD and T&D provide human resource with learning to improve performance. However, their emphasises are different harmonize to the definitions. T&D focuses more on the improvement of individual performance, whereas HRD is a business approach which plays a crucial role in the improvement of whole organizational.II. master(prenominal) Purpose of HRD and T&D 1. Main usage of HRD The key functions of HRD are individual development, organizational development, career development and performance improvement. Actually, the main purpose of HRD is under debate of researchers and practiti matchlessrs. Should it focus on increasing the performance requirements of its organizations and enhancing the productivity of the workforce or on developing the individual competency and skills? When practiced in productive organizations, HRD should contribute directly to the organizations goal.As a result, performance improvement becom es the main purpose of HRD. There are many aspects that HRD could improve performance individual, process, as well as organizational levels. For instance, performance is impeded when the goal of an organization do not give way various internal and external realities (culture, for example). HRD could solve this problem by formulating a goal that fit in the organizational culture while a culture change process being utilise in order to support the goal of the organization. 2. Main purpose of T&DIn many literatures, the purpose of T&D concentrates on individual development. There is need to train and retrain the employees on sustained basis. T&D has the goal of influencing basic values and beliefs of individual. Meanwhile, there are also technical and management T&D programmes related to systems and procedures appeal to the inherent logic, and the planning methods and people skills appeal to the strategies of succeed. The relationship (or difference) of HRD and T&D (and other HRD fu nctions) could be illustrated by figure1Figure1 (Haslinda, 2009) Although the main purpose of T&D is individual development, which is one of the four key functions of HRD, we can not say that T&D is a subset of HRD. HRD and T&D are discrete entities. HRD is the integrated use of T&D, organizational development, career development and performance development to improve individual, group, and organizational effectiveness. III. Strategies of HRD and T&D 1. Strategies of HRD To contribute to the goals and missions of the organization, efforts of making HRD strategies must take place.First, there should be a clear overview of the relationship between the organizations missions, strategic agenda, and competitive environment. Followed by an legal opinion of the current capacity of workforce, special postulate are identified. An evaluation system needs to be reinforced in order to examine if the target competencies indeed enhance the actualization of organizational goals. Finally, the org anization needs senior leadership and a culture that support lifelong learning of the work role of each employee. 2. Strategies of T&DTraining and development in an organization also requires a mechanism that establishes the competencies required by an organization to achieve success. Therefore, the strategy of T&D includes 1) identifying the employees training needs, 2) finding out the HR strategic plan, 3) establishing personal developing plans and 4) evaluating the T&D outcomes by assessment. The process could be revised over and over again. The strategies of HRD and T&D have several points in common. However, those tiny distinctions make HRD a more strategically oriented organizational process.

Advantage of Cng over Petrol and Diesel Cars Essay

What atomic number 18 the advantage of CNG oer flatulency and diesel engine? AnswerCNG engines create less pollution than petrol and diesel engines. As it is utilize compress internal burn let out place develops frequently than the others and also develops more torque in the engine. which leads to spread out a disappoint furnish consumption. The Advantages of slopped inherent GasThe Environment every last(predicate)y Clean Advantage smashed inhering gun is the crackingest burning furnish ope evaluation today. This means less fomite upkeep and hourlong engine life. CNG vehicles produce the fewest emissions of any motor give the sack. Dedicated Natural Gas fomites (NGV) have piddlingr or no emissions during fueling. In blusteroline vehicles, fueling emissions account for at to the lowest degree 50% of a vehicles total hydro simple machinebon paper emissions. CNG produces signifi stoptly less pollutants than accelerator pedal & Diesel. Tailpipe emissio ns from lo enforce upoline operated cars release carbon dioxide, which contri nonwithstandinges to ball-shaped warming. This is greatly repressd with subjective bobble. The Maintenance Advantage Some fleet operators have reduced maintenance bes by as more than(prenominal) as 40% by converting their vehicles to CNG. Intervals in the midst of tune-ups for indwelling float vehicles argon extended 30,000 to 50,000 miles. Intervals between oil changes for lifelike gas vehicles be dramatically extended anywhere from 10,000 to 25,000 additional miles depending on how the vehicle is utilisationd. Natural gas does not react to metals the way gasoline does, so pipes and mufflers last much longer. The Performance Advantage Natural gas gives the comparable mileage as gasolene in a converted vehicle. Dedicated CNG engines are superior in performance to accelerator engines. CNG has an octane rating of 130 and has a slight qualification advantage over throttle. Because CNG is already in a aerosolised state, CNG vehicles have superior starting and drivability, even under weighty hot and cold weather conditions. CNG Vehicles suffer less knocking and no vapor locking. The CNG Cost Advantage Natural gas is cheaper per equivalent weight gal than Petrol (an average of 50% less than Petrol). The Safety Advantage Surveys indicate that CNGVehicles are as off the hook(predicate) or safer than those motiveed by other fuels. A 1992 Australian Gas Assocition survey of more than 8,000 vehicles plant that with more than 278 trillion miles traveled, CNG Vehicle injury rates per vehicle mile traveled were 34% trim down than the rate for Petrol Vehicles. There were no fatalities reportedeven though these vehicles were involved in over 1,800 collisions. The Financial Incentive Advantage Some States offers a 50% investment tax credit for separately vehicle converted to inwrought gas. This 50% credit on state income tax features a three-year, transfer option. A federal tax deduction is also available for the cost of conversion. CNG ConversionsConverting a Petrol-Powered car to CNG requires simply minor engine modifications. To learn more closely converting your car, please contact a certified CNG conversion technician. What are the major benefits of graphic gas as a transportation fuel?EconomicsOn a gallon-equivalent basis, natural gas cost an average of 50 to 60 percent less than Petrol and Diesel. Natural gas is a clean-burning fuel that reduces vehicle maintenance. Many CNG Vehicle owners report that oil changes are needed just every 15,000 Km. Standard spark plugs last as long as 60,000 Km. Natural gas, unlike melted fuels, cannot be siphoned from a vehicle. Fuel theft is an on-going concern of fleet managers. Vehicles can be fast change in five to six minutes using compressed gas stored in cascades of natural gas cylinders or fueled overnight on a timed fill basis in about five to eight hours. Many one-on-one fleet fueling stations use a combination of fast fill and timed fill. EmissionsNatural gas is the cleanest burning alternative fuel. Exhaust emissions from CNG Vehicles are much lower than those from equivalent Petrol- force-outed vehicles. For instance, CNG Vehicle emissions of carbon monoxide are approximately 70 percent lower, non-methane organic gas emissions are 89 percent lower, and oxides of nitrogen emissions are 87 percent lower. In addition to these reductions in pollutants, CNG Vehicles also emit significantly lower amounts of greenhouse gases and toxins than do Petrol vehicles.Dedicated CNG Vehicles produce little or no evaporative emissions during fueling and use. For Petrol vehicles, evaporative and fueling emissions account for at least 50 percent of a vehicles total hydrocarbon emissions. Dedicated CNG Vehicles also can reduce carbon dioxide exhaust emissions byalmost 20 percent.Exposure to the levels of suspended fine particulate field found in many U.S. cities has bee n shown to increase the luck of respiratory illness. Diesel exhaust is under redirect examination as a hazardous transfer pollutant. Natural gas engines produce only tiny amounts of this matter. greenhouse GasesPer unit of nada, natural gas contains less carbon than any other fossil fuel, and thus produces lower CO2 emissions per vehicle mile traveled. darn natural gas vehicles (CNG Vehicles) do emit methane, another prescript greenhouse gas, any slight increase in methane emissions would be more than offset by a substantial reduction in CO2 emissions compared to other fuels.CNG Vehicles also emit very low levels of carbon monoxide (approximately 70 percent lower than a comparable Petrol vehicle) and volatile organic compounds. Although these two pollutants are not themselves greenhouse gases, they play an classical role in helping to break down methane and round other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, and thus increase the global rate of methane decomposition.SafetyVehicles that run on clean burning natural gas are as safe as vehicles operating on handed-down fuels such as Petrol. In fact, many school transportation managers choose natural gas to index number their school buses because compressed natural gas, unlike Petrol, dissipates into the atmosphere in the event of an accident. Petrol pools on the motive creating a fire hazard.In the US a survey was taken of more than 8,000 vehicles that cumulatively traveled approximately 278 million miles from 1987-1990. The survey found that the injury rate for CNG Vehicles per vehicular mile traveled (VMT) was 37 percent lower than the rate for Petrol-powered fleet vehicles and 34 percent lower than the entire population of registered Petrol vehicles. In addition to the lower injury rate, no deaths were recorded for the CNG Vehicles in the survey. In contrast the deaths associated with the Petrol fleet vehicles surveyed came to 1.28 deaths per 100 million VMT. The US national average was 2.2 deaths per 100 million VMT for all U.S. Petrolvehicles.There are two fundamental reasons for this excellent CNG Vehicle safety record the structural unity of the CNG Vehicle fuel agreement and the physical qualities of natural gas as a fuel.The fuel entrepot cylinders use in CNG Vehicles are much stronger than gasoline fuel tanks. The fancy of CNG Vehicle cylinders are subjected to a number of federally required severe abuse analyzes, such as affectionateness and pressure extremes, gunfire, collisions and fires.While fuel storage cylinders are stronger than Petrol fuel tanks, the composite material used to encase the tanks are fundamentally more susceptible to physical wrong than metals under abusive conditions. For this reason, composite materials on CNG Vehicle cylinders must always be properly handled and protected. Incidents involving natural gas cylinder ruptures revealed that some form of chemical substance attack or physical damage to the composite overwrap on the cylinder was invol ved.CNG Vehicle fuel systems are sealed, which prevents any spills or evaporative redes. Even if a leak were to occur in an CNG Vehicle fuel system, the natural gas would dissipate into the atmosphere because it is lighter than air.Natural gas has a high excitation temperature, about 650 C, compared with about 350 C for Petrol. It also has a narrow float of flammability that is, in concentrations in air below about 5 % and preceding(prenominal) about 15 %, natural gas allow for not burn. The high ignition temperature and limited flammability range make accidental ignition or combustion of natural gas unlikely.Natural gas is not toxic or corrosive and testament not colly ground water. Natural gas combustion produces no significant aldehydes or other air toxins, which are a concern in gasoline and some other alternative fuels.The natural gas manner of speaking system also has an excellent and proven safetyrecord. According to statistics from the U.S. Department of Transpor tation, the 1.9 million Km natural gas transmission and distrisolelyion system is the safest way to transport energy in the United States.CNG Vehicles use the same energy that has safely and comfortably heated homes and cooked meals for more than 100 years.Where are CNG Vehicles used straight?Approximately 100,000 CNG Vehicles are on U.S. roads today. CNG Vehicles have a long-established record in Europe, Canada, New Zealand and Australia, as well. Italy has been using natural gas as a vehicular fuel since the 1940s, with more than 350,000 CNG Vehicles. In Canada, well-nigh 20,000 CNG Vehicles operate with a network of 220 public fueling stations. Argentina has 680,000 CNG Vehicles, and Russia has more than 30,000. Worldwide, nearly two million CNG Vehicles are in use, in countries now including Uzbekistan, Venezuela, Mexico, the Philippines and Indonesia. How do CNG Vehicles work?The only major difference between a Petrol vehicle and an CNG Vehicle is the fuel system. Natural gas is compressed to between 3,000 and 3,600 pounds per forthrightly inch (200 bar) and is stored on board the vehicle in cylinders installed in the rear, undercarriage, or on the roof. When natural gas is required by the engine, it leaves the cylinders, passes finished a master manual shut-off valve and travels through a high-pressure fuel regulator located in the engine compartment. The natural gas is injected at atmospheric pressure through a specially designed natural gas mixer where it is properly mixed with air. Natural gas consequently flows into the engines combustion chamber and is ignited to create the power required to compel the vehicle. Special solenoid-operated valves prevent the gas from entering the engine when it is shut off.What about the vehicles power?Petrol vehicles converted to natural gas are subject to a small power loss when running on natural gas however, vehicles designed specifically to run on natural gas will have no loss of power and may even have great er power and cogency. Natural gas has a 130 octane rating, compared with 87 to 96 octane rating of Petrol.How much energy does Compressed Natural gas release compared to petrol?A direct answer to your question is that the energy essence of natural gas (CNG) is about 47 MJ/kg or 40 MJ/m3. (gross warmth value). The set for a typical petrol are 60 MJ/kg and 44 MJ/liter. Another comparison on an energy basis is that 1 kg of CNG is equivalent to about 1.33 liter of petrol or 1.22 liter of diesel. Or on a volume basis 1 m3 of CNG is equivalent to about 1.10 L of petrol or 1.0 L of diesel. When fashioning comparisons you may also need to take into account the relative energy efficiency of the engines that use the various fuels. Generally engines that are designed for natural gas fuel are roughly more efficient than a similar petrol engine (because they can run at a higher compression ratio). The CNG and diesel engines of similar size will have a much the same thermal efficiency.What is the miles per gallon equivalent of natural gas compared to gasoline?If the CNG Vehicle is an original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM) model, it will have been designed to make the most of the excellent properties of Natural Gas eg it will have a higher compression ratio than the petrol model and different ignition timing and you could appear to grab an improvement in performance and fuel consumption on an energy basis. This might be about 5% or more. Of course you might then drive faster, and not have any advantage. If the car has been converted from Petrol to CNG and you can choose to run on either fuel (ie a bi-fuel vehicle) then it is not possible to make the most of the higher octane rating of the CNG. In this case the change in fuel consumption will depend very much on the vehicle and engine design and on the conversion equipment used and how it is tuned. In this case you might expect an increase of possibly 5% in consumption. However the tune may be optimized to a particul ar power and speed range and if you can hit this you might strike a small improvement. There may be more scope to achieve this on a high capacity engine with reserves of power. On a smaller engine at that place may be a noticeable drop in power and your consumption could increase if you try to match the old on-road performance.Cylinders in AccidentsA pressurized gas cylinder is belike the strongest component on the vehicle. Vehicles that totally destroyed in collisions show the only discernible component be the intact gas cylinder. It is unlikely thatcylinders will rupture due to collision impact.Regarding the danger of fire from leaking cylinders, all we have is the experience to date that indicates that such an event is unlikely to occur. In North America in that location was a problem with leaking type 4 designs from a particular manufacturer, just now there has never been an ensuing fire. The risk of fire from leaking cylinders must be low since there are well over a mill ion CNG vehicle installations worldwide that have not experienced such problems.It is worth pointing out that natural gas is lighter than air and in the unlikely event of a leak from piping or container the gas will dissipate upwards quite quickly. In the case of petrol and LPG the vapors accustomed off is heavier than air and will tend to pool near the ground. This is where there is a strong risk of some ignition reference point. In general terms diesel ranks high in terms of safety, but most people rank Natural Gas next.What are the factors which affect the fuel efficiency of CNG?In the first place let us list the energy content of the fuels you mention. Using units of MJ per kilogram, the net heating values of petrol, diesel, LPG and CNG are about 45, 43, 46, and 44 the net heating value does not include the heat in the water vapor of the combustion products. If you look up the gross heating values which do include this, the values are different (higher). So the differences be tween the fuels are not large. But the values will also vary quite a lot depending on the composition of the fuel particularly for CNG and LPG.We now need to consider the way in which different engines use the fuels in particular the efficiency. The engine thermal efficiency is a function of many different factors but perhaps the most important one is the engine compression ratio. The higher the compression ratio the higher is the theoretical and also the demonstrable efficiency. The maximum compression ratio (CR) different fuels can tolerate in fact defines the efficiency. Since diesel used in a compression ignition engine can operate at say 141 the diesel will be expected to have the highest efficiency lets say 40% as an upper limit. The next highest efficiency in the fuels comes from CNG, which can operate at say 121. with an efficiency of say 35%. It is possible to run an engine on CNG at 141 but that is the very upper limit. We would not expect to be able to run petrol and LPG engines at much more than 91 and an efficiency of about 30%.These efficiencies are the upper limits and at luxuriant load in normal routine they will be lower than the values quoted, but in much the same proportion. The main reason for the differences is the variation in limiting CR for the different fuels. So here is a starting point for a discussion of the differences in efficiency.As far as fuel energy comparisons go (and this does not take into account the different engine efficiencies), 1 kg of CNG is equivalent to about 1.33 liters of petrol or 1.22 liters of diesel but of course occupies a greater volume. Or 1 cubic meter of CNG at atmospheric pressure is equivalent to 1.10 liters of petrol and 1.00 liters of diesel.Note that there are a lot of other factors that we have not considered for example the diesel engine will be much heavier than the other engines, and the Petrol fuels will need pressure vessels to contain them. Having established how much energy you get from the different fuels and how efficiently the different engines can use the fuels, you will be able start out how much they cost and then work out a cost per km or mile. In many countries CNG will come out as best value and that diesel will be next, followed by LPG and then petrol. But prices do vary a great deal. Incidentally if you have a petrol engine that has been converted to use CNG you will not achieve the high efficiency quoted above because the compression ratio will be fixed at the level required for petrol you will only get the benefit of higher efficiency in an OEM.What are the economics of small vehicle conversion?In very general terms the smaller the vehicle the longer is the payback extremity for the cost of conversion. This is because the fuel consumption and therefore manner of speakings for the smaller vehicles is lower, and at the same time the cost of conversion does not go down much with vehicle size. The cost of the fuel control system stays much the s ame and the price of a smaller storage cylinder will not be much lower (and in a small vehicle it is more difficult to find a space for the cylinder).It may be difficult to justify the conversion on an economic basis, but this does depend on annual mileage. Do a rough sum on the basis of saving half (or whatever the price differential is in your area) of your fuel costs in a year. You should expect better than a three year payback on the basis of economics.Environmental benefits and lower maintenance costs will be small.Check where you would be able to find space for the storage cylinder which must be sized to meet commuter needs. And of course allow something for the satisfaction of knowing that you are lowering your product of hydrocarbon emissions.Is driving around with cylinders full of gas under pressure dangerous?Thick-walled reinforced aluminum cylinders, nerve cylinders or 100% composite materials are used to store compressed natural gas (CNG) as a vehicle fuel. These cyli nders are manufactured and tested in compliance with strict regulations, and have withstood severe abuse testing under conditions far more stringent than tanks designed for storing gasoline. Natural gas vehicles submitted to test crashes up to 52 miles per hour, which have been totally destroyed, but show little or no damage to the compressed gas cylinders (CNG). Bonfire and dynamite tests push cylinders to temperature and pressures exceeding specified limits showing that compressed natural gas (CNG) cylinders are durable and safe. Of course, as with all fuel systems, these cylinders are not indestructible and should be inspected periodically to ensure that no surface damage has occurred.In which countries are natural gas vehicles popular?Natural gas as a vehicle fuel has a long and established record in Europe, Canada, New Zealand, Australia, and in the U.S.A. Other countries are recognizing the benefits of CNG Vehicles, and plan to expand the use of CNG Vehicle.In Europe, Italy ha s been using natural gas as a vehicle fuel since the 1920s and has about 370,000 CNG Vehicles. The Italians have a network of 280 filling stations to support their use of compressed natural gas (CNG). Russia has about 75,000 CNG Vehicles and a fuelling network of some 250 stations. Outside of these countries, there are now several k CNG Vehicles in Europe and a slowly growing fuelling station infrastructure.Argentina has 700,000 CNG Vehicles the largest fleet in the world and is converting more than 3,000 vehicles a month and has over 950 fuelling stations in operation and more than 100 under development. Venezuela has a national CNG Vehicle programmers and will be installing 60 fuelling stations and converting vehicles.Canada has about 36,000 vehicles converted to natural gas, and the government-supported NGV programmer has created a number of incentives. The Canadian government provides change incentives for fleets to convert their vehicles, and hopes to use CNG for 10% of the entire countrys future vehicle fuel requirements.In the U.S.A. there are now about 68,000 vehicles fuelled on natural gas. Natural gas vehicles have been in use there since the late 1960s, but comparative prices with gasoline and state-of-the-art technologies are only now making natural gas economically and technologically competitive with gasoline vehicles. There are about 1,200 private and public refueling stations.What are the conversion factors for natural gas?Methane values are fixed and can be found in any chemical handbook, while the composition of natural gas varies with source and time so try to find a local value. Approximately, 1kg CNG is equivalent to about 1.33 liters (L) of petrol or 1.22 L diesel. And 1 cu meter of CNG is equivalent to about 1.10 L of petrol or 1.00 L diesel.